People

Arts: The Adja appear to blend in with the dominant culture they live closest to. Among the Adja in Togo, there is less dependence on Benin-style "vodun," and a greater dependence on community shrines, in which they place small, abstract, wooden figures as offerings, hoping to solve a problem or grant a wish. These figures are quite unique, often painted white and only vaguely human in shape. They are usually devoid of facial features, and crudely carved. The Adja in Benin produce "vodun" fetishes, which strongly resemble those of the Fon, using a variety of materials and magical additives.

History: The Adja are an ancient group of people now living in Benin, and in small parts of Togo along the Benin border. There is very little firm scholarship on them, and what there is can be contradictory. Some report that the Adja migrated to what is now southern Benin in the 12th or 13th centuries from Tado on the Mono River, and in the early 17th century, three brothers, Kokpon, Do-Aklin, and Te-Agdanlin, fought for the kingdom and in the end divided it amongst themselves. Two of the important Benin towns founded by the Adja are Abomey and Porto Novo. The Adja living in Abomey mingled and intermarried with the locals, creating a new people known as the Fon, who today are the largest ethnic group in Benin. Though the Fon are the culture most identified with West African "vodun," it is thought that the Adja were its first practitioners, and there continue to be devotees in Benin today. Vodun is quite a complicated religion, closely tied to nature and, for lack of a better term, "witchcraft." It revolves around a dependence on priests, special chants, and an astounding range of magical materials, in order to solve problems. Vodun is not, however, a force for evil as is widely believed, and its practices can most accurately be described as "prayers."

Arts: Historically, the Bongo honored heroic warriors or hunters with sculpted grave markers known as "Ngya," placed over burials ceremonially a year after death, to insure that they were welcomed into the village of the ancestors. Knowledge of the Bongo is based almost entirely on these spectacular, ornate, and haunting grave posts. They produce small figures as well, probably for apotropaic and ancestral purposes, but these are stylistically vague, and resemble similar figures from northwestern Tanzania, making them very difficult to identify.

History: The Bongo were at one time a large culture living in the south of the Sudan, and are most-likely part of a very ancient Nilotic lineage. However, over time, due to migration to find food and firewood, along with the slave trade, their numbers were reduced. By the middle of the 20th century their population was estimated at less that 200,000, spread over a wide area, and into parts of the northern Congo and western Tanzania. In fact, they virtually no longer exist as a distinct group, with almost total assimilation into neighboring homelands.

Arts: The Anyi, like most of the so-called "Lagoon" peoples, are known primarily for their strikingly beautiful female figures, used ritually to promote fertility. Statues of the Anyi, like those of other groups in the area, are some of the most ravishing in all of Africa, combining the best features of Baule artistry with a unique "lagoon" appearance. They can be found either standing, or seated upon a classic Akan stool, and usually have lovely blackened patinas. Anyi pieces do show Baule influence, in their faces primarily, but Lagoon carvings are stronger and bolder, more daring, with massive volumes offset by muscular, stubby arms. The effect can be exquisite, even extraordinary. This body shape is in stark contrast to the more linear figures of the Baule.

History: The Anyi are one of the so-called "Lagoon" cultures, who are from the Akan group. The Akan are recognized as one of the original cultures to live in the areas now known as Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire, and can be traced back to the 13th century. The rise of the Asante Kingdom, a large and aggressive member of the Akan, led to the dispersion of many smaller groups, who fled to the south and west, primarily along the coast, away from their heavy-handed, intrusive neighbors. A handful of smaller Akan settlements, including the Anyi, Ebrie, and Attye, became known as the "Lagoon" peoples, acquiring this description as a result of establishing their homelands in the isolated wetland areas of coastal Cote d'Ivoire, notable for its many lagoons and estuaries. This change in geography led the Lagoon peoples out of Ghana, away from Asante dominance. Here they came under the artistic and social influence of the Baule, another large Akan culture, who had also fled Ghana early on, settling in Cote d'Ivoire.

Arts and History: The Ekonde, a sub-group of the Mongo, are known mostly for their elegant copper anklet-form currency, though so little is actually known about them that it is possible that they could also have been worn for special occasions, like weddings. Their infrequent use was most-likely restricted to "bride price" transactions, serving not only as gifts between families but also to settle disputes which might arise surrounding the subject of marriage. They essentially are "prestige" objects. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica the Mongo "are any of several peoples living in the African equatorial forest, south of the main Congo River bend and north of the Kasai and Sankuru rivers in Congo (Kinshasa). They include numerous ethnic groups such as the Bokote, Ekonda, Bolia, Sengele, Ntomba, Ndengese, Songomeno, Mbole, Bongandu, Boyela, Nkutu, and Tetela-Kusu. They speak dialects of a common language, Mongo or Nkundo, from the Benue-Congo branch of the Niger-Congo languages. Many groups are disappearing because of falling birth rates." Arts of the Mongo and their relatives, exist mostly in "oral" form, with songs and the dances associated with them dominant. Considering the fact that the Mongo peoples are one of the largest ethnic groups in the Congo Basin it is surprising that relatively few forms of the so-called "plastic arts" exist.

Arts and History: The Ambete are thought to be descendents of the Kota, and like most other cultures in the area, use "guardian figures" to protect as well as venerate the bones and memories of their ancestors. The Ambete are known almost entirely for their distinctive and rather large guardian figures, which are wonderfully abstract. The faces and body are often white from the application of kaolin, and have a striking triangular face, often with bared teeth. The abdomen is somewhat rounded with arms fixed to the sides. Figures usually have a cavity carved out of the back of the figure, used to house relics like old bones and other smaller artifacts connected to the ancestors, in much the same way as European Catholics venerate certain saints through the preservation and display of relics. The faces of most Ambete figures strongly resemble those found on the masks of the Vuvi and the Mitsogho, even though Ambete masks are virtually unknown. Because of the scattered nature of most of the peoples of the Gabon, primarily due to the invasion of the Fulani into the area 200 years ago, there is almost nothing known of their history. Also the very nature of Gabon, being so densely forested, makes the study of its residents a daunting task.

Arts: Though the Bwa are not related by lineage to the Mossi, their wood carvings follow similar stylistic guidelines. with soaring vertical plank masks and animal masks, associated with the "Cult of Do." Roy writes: " The Bwa believe that the world was created by God, named Difini, or Dobweni, who abandoned man and left the earth when he was wounded by a woman pounding millet with her pestle. To act as his representative among man and as an intermediary between man and the forces of nature, Dobweni sent his son, Do. Although Do is androgynous, both male and female, it is most frequently represented as male. Do represents the bush and its life-giving force, for the Bwa still depend on the bush for game and gathered food. He shows himself as the source of plant life and the power that gives fruit to man's work in the fields. Do is concerned with ceremonies that insure the renewal of life." Plank masks employ the dramatic geometric incising found throughout the region. Dance masks fall into two categories, the extraordinary face masks, which feature an abstract round face with a triangular or diamond-shaped mouth, through which the dancer sees, an impressive downward-sweeping hook, and painted circular and checkerboard decorations. All of these patterns have ritual and totemic significance. The face masks include a soaring vertical plank, likewise decorated with a variety of curving and geometric motifs. The topmost portion of the mask is often a graceful downward curve, not strictly horizontal. The second type of mask, of which there are many individual types, are the animal masks. Unlike the rather static, two-dimensional plank face masks, these can be quite dynamic, even stunning. A variety of animals are rather realistically depicted, and including the antelope, buffalo, serpent, rooster, hawks, butterflies, fish, hyenas, and crocodiles. These serve to teach and inspire initiates. The familiar winged "butterfly" masks have a series of eight circles spread four to each side. They are often confused with the hawk mask, which replaces circles with colorful triangular and linear patterns. About the significance of the geometric decorations, Roy adds: "Initiates learn the meanings of the geometric signs that cover the masks from the elders, who use the masks themselves as models, and also use rectangular boards on which the same signs have been painted. Initially, each of the signs is explained independently of other signs, using didactic boards. Then the meanings of the assembled signs on specific plank masks are explained. Here the combination of signs communicates a moral or historical lesson that is an essential part of the initiation. These lessons describe the virtues of the ideal, respected member of the community, and the dangers of straying from the path of social behavior marked out by the ancestors. They also illustrate the myths of the founding of the clans." Another significant mask form, the "leaf" mask, is used by the Bwa, but since it is made entirely of vegetal materials, never survives long enough to be collectible. Like wooden masks, they are associated with the Cult of Do. Geography plays a significant role in mask type, the northern Bwa use mostly leaf masks, while southern Bwa lean towards the many wooden forms. Though figures have been reported, they haven't been seen on the market in years. Attribution of Bwa masks is not difficult, if studied carefully, section by section.

History: Though their distant roots are unknown, this Voltaic group has resided in central Burkina Faso and eastern Mali at least three hundred years. They have been repeatedly invaded, primarily because they live in scattered small villages not easily defended. In the 18th century, the Segou Bamana occupied large areas of Bwa territory. This was a difficult period for the Bwa, who were forced to pay taxes and tributes to their Bamana captors. The decline of the Bamana Empire was replaced by the infamous Muslim Fulani cavalry, who destroyed crops, slaughtered animals, enslaved both men and women, and forced many of the men to join their army. The arrival of the French brought little relief to the Bwa, as they conspired with the Fulani to tighten their grip. By 1915 the Bwa as a people were virtually extinct, yet somehow the few who survived managed to reestablish themselves. They continue to be a vibrant culture to this day, and produce masks treasured throughout the world.

Arts: Because the Hausa have been heavily Islamicized for many centuries, their sculptural output is almost non-existent. The Hausa do produce some fine woven textiles, primarily in the Kano State of Northern Nigeria, as well as exquisite, tightly-woven baskets. There are also a few examples of a strange hunting headdress which uses the beak of a hornbill, carried by the crouching men over their heads to fool potential game. Hausa men wear flowing embroidered robes called "riga," which are prized by collectors, and identified most often with the Hausa, but these textiles are not unique to the them and are, in fact, worn by several groups throughout the region.

History: Hausa mythology relates a primordial couple, Bayajidda and the "queen of Daura," giving birth to seven sons, who went on to found the seven traditional Hausa city-states. The rise of these states can be traced back to between 500AD and 700AD, with the Hausa reaching their zenith around 1200AD, when Arab Muslims began to heavily infiltrate Hausa villages and convert its residents.

The Hausa eventually fell prey, like many groups throughout West Africa, to the marauding Fulani, who swept southward from the Sahel region on horseback, to be stopped, not by human opposition, but by the many diseases and oppressive humidity of the Congo and Cameroon rainforests. The Hausa today remain inextricably tied to their former captors, and many modern ethnologists, as well as the Nigerian government, describe this population area as "Hausa-Fulani."

Arts: The Ebrie, like most of the so-called "Lagoon" peoples, are known primarily for their strikingly beautiful female figures, used ritually to promote fertility. Statues of the Ebrie, like those of other groups in the area, are some of the most ravishing in all of Africa, combining the best features of Baule artistry with a unique "lagoon" appearance. They can be found either standing, or seated upon a classic Akan stool, and usually have lovely blackened patinas. Ebrie pieces do show Baule influence, in their faces primarily, but Lagoon carvings are stronger and bolder, more daring, with massive volumes offset by muscular, stubby arms. The effect can be exquisite, even extraordinary. This body shape is in stark contrast to the more linear figures of the Baule.


History: The Ebrie are one of the so-called "Lagoon" cultures, who are from the Akan group. They live, in fact, along a lagoon which bears their name, near the town of Blokosso. The Akan are recognized as one of the original cultures to live in the areas now known as Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire, and can be traced back to the 13th century. The rise of the Asante Kingdom, a large and aggressive member of the Akan, led to the dispersion of many smaller groups, who fled to the south and west, primarily along the coast, away from their heavy-handed, intrusive neighbors. A handful of smaller Akan settlements became known as the "Lagoon" peoples, acquiring this description as a result of establishing their homelands in the isolated wetland areas of coastal Cote d'Ivoire, notable for its many lagoons and estuaries. This change in geography led the Lagoon peoples out of Ghana, away from Asante dominance. Here they came under the artistic and social influence of the Baule, another large Akan culture, who had also fled Ghana early on, settling in Cote d'Ivoire.

Location: Guinea, small areas of Sierra Leone and Liberia

Population: 350,000

Arts and History: The Kissi,are a mostly agrarian culture living in small villages over a wide area of the West African coast, though the majority live in Guinea. They have lived in these same areas for many hundreds of years, though little is known of their history. Their artistic output is limited, consisting mostly of objects of a utilitarian nature, like baskets and weaving on vertical looms.

They have, however, become associated with an interesting figural soapstone carving, called a "pombo." The product of generations past, perhaps as long as 800 years ago, these small figures, usually less than 8 inches, are one of the few examples of ritual stone carvings extant in all of West Africa. They are thought to have been placed in small shrines in the rice fields, to insure a successful harvest. Today they are reportedly unearthed in these fields, which are still being farmed. They are, in turn, reused ritually. It has been reported that the little figures are given offerings when the rice crop thrives, but "whipped" when the harvest is poor! The stone composition of these charming little mysteries makes scientific dating impossible, so their age can only be guessed at.

The only other art form associated with the Kissi are the crude iron spade-shaped "pennies," used for marriage exchanges. There are few other forms of note, identifiable ones anyway. One would think that the presence of the powerful "Poro" society would require the use of masks and figures but, so far, none have been specifically linked to the Kissi.

Arts: Almost the entire artistic output of the Lobi is devoted to the famous shrine figures known as "Bateba," which are thought to embody the spirits of the "Thil," an all-purpose but unseen being. The thil, who represents the creator god, also unseen, is consulted via a prescription from a diviner, who might require the carving of a bateba as an intermediary component of this prescription. The bateba come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and postures. The Lobi craft beautiful three-legged stools, rare but impressive human heads sometimes mounted on iron stakes, and numerous cast or forged metal figures and animals, made by the men during the off-season. Utilitarian objects like slingshots, flutes, and canes are also made. The Lobi, oddly, do not have a masking tradition at all.

In order to understand Lobi art, it is necessary to have at least a basic understanding of their religious beliefs, no small task. The Lobi have no system of centralized government, nor for that matter do they elect chiefs or venerate elders based on lineage. Instead of elected leaders, or chiefs who inherited their power, the Lobi rely on a cult of nature spirits led by the Thil, and his human interpreter, the village diviner, or "buor." The position of the buor is not chosen by humans, but rather a "calling" of sorts. The buor does not live among regular villagers and does work, depending on the kindness of the people who consult him for survival. It is similar in some respects to the caste system in India. Lobi mythology goes thusly: The Creator God, or "thangba yu," grew dissatisfied with the behavior of his subjects, and washed his hands of them, sending them a surrogate, the Thil, to assist them in their corrupt world. The Thil, interpreted differently in each village, and his human assistant, the long-suffering buor, are thus charged with carrying the burdens of an entire village. When needed, the buor performs a ceremony and consults the thil. This leads to a prescription from the diviner, which might include the carving of a bateba, who mediates if necessary. The bateba are looked upon as living beings, charged with special powers, who move, fight against witches, and have intercourse with each other. The Lobi believe that the bateba are superior to humans, but inferior to the Thil spirits, so the bateba is first activated by putting it in a Thil shrine. The bateba keep sorcerers away, and help the Thil ward off misfortune. Shrines vary from large, free-standing structures scattered about the village, to small family shrines inside, or on top of, huts.

The Lobi produce gorgeous three-legged stools, which can be crude and undecorated, or have animal or bateba-like heads. Reportedly, they are carried about by men as they drink millet beer after work. There are also the rare and beautiful head carvings, considered to be a dangerous and powerful bateba. These resemble in some ways the Fang byeri heads, but are even more rare. During the off-season, after harvest, Lobi men devote some of their time to the forging of iron and the casting of brass. They make delightful amulets in both animal and human form, with the strange iron snakes perhaps the best-known. There are many interesting utilitarian objects, like charming figural slingshots, and small phallic-form flutes and staffs. The art of the Lobi continues to grow in popularity due to its naive beauty and relative abundance.

History: Most of the Lobi, who are considered among the most ancient occupants of West Africa, fled from Ghana and the Akan around 1770, crossing into Cote 'd'Ivoire and the former Upper Volta in search of uncultivated land. The Lobi stubbornly resisted the influence of the French occupation, and maintain their animist traditions to this day. Their arts, architecture, and complicated belief system make them among the most remarkable, though underrated cultures in all of Africa.

Location: Central Democratic Rep of the Congo

Population: 150,000

Arts: The abstract wood carvings of the Mbole are rare, but they are highly distinctive. Their output consists primarily of remarkable small statues used in the "Lilwa" society and ancestral ceremonies, a few extremely rare masks with minimal design, and huge copper ankle "bracelets."

The Mbole live in independent villages headed by a chief chosen from the elders of each extended family. Social and spiritual order is maintained through various societies, run by healers, elders, as well as powerful women. The carvings which put Mbole sculpture on the "map" are those of the Lilwa Society, a powerful group headed by a leader known as the "Isoya." The Lilwa oversees most aspects of the daily life of each village, but judicial proceedings are perhaps their most important duty. Justice is swift for those found guilty of major offenses, with hanging the punishment. Families of each hanged individual are required to produce a small figure representing the deceased. The shape and design of each figure is static, but very distinctive, with hands on thighs, shoulders hunched over in a position of defeat, an enlarged, abstract head, and a downward looking, heart-shaped white face. Reportedly containing the soul of the executed, the figures are kept in special forest huts and used during initiations to emphasize the importance of good behavior. The other village societies use similar figures, but their differentiation is rather esoteric. The Mbole do use masks on rare occasions, but most that exist were field-collected and rather vague in appearance, having incised or painted linear designs below the eyes, resembling tears. The Yela, a neighboring group, use masks with almost the same look. The Mbole also forge massive copper ankle cuffs, used as currency on rare but important transactions, which are very popular with collectors.

History: The history of the Mbole is sketchy at best, but it is known that they came from north of the Congo (Zaire) River, and moved into their current location on the left bank during the 18th century. They speak a Bantu dialect, and their closest relatives are thought to be the Yela, who share certain rituals with them. The Mbole remain rather mysterious, known mostly through their art.

Arts and History: The Mangbetu are an ancient and poorly understood culture, who are thought to have migrated southward into the Congo from the upper Sudan. They have endured centuries of invasions and domination by outside forces, and this has resulted in much fragmentation and intermarriage. As a result, their artworks are rare. Statues are thought to be ancestral portraits, but this is not known for sure. The most famous pieces of the Mangbetu are the terracotta drinking vessels with the same proud and regal head-shape found on statues. Occasionally these vessels are carved from wood. In addition to their elegant shapes, these pieces usually are decorated with copious and dramatic scarification. There are also harps and other musical instruments, again usually figural and easily identified. Mangbetu pieces, when viewed in profile, can remind one of the portrait busts of ancient Egyptians, with the bust of Nefertiti coming to mind. Almost all of their carvings and pottery are prestige items produced for the ruling class, a practice more commonly found farther south in Cameroon. Though their output is sparse, a surprising number of masterpieces exist.